Applications of Radioactivity in Medicine

Applications of Radioactivity in Medicine Introduction A radioactive element is an element with an unstable nucleus, which radiates alpha, beta or gamma radiation and gets converted to a stable element. Both radioisotopes and enriched stable isotopes are essential to a wide variety of applications in medicine, where they are used in the diagnosis and treatment of illnesses. In addition, extensive applications of isotopes in biomedical research finds wide parallel uses in research chemistry, physics, biology and geosciences, with additional needs existing in the commercial sector. HISTORY Radioactivity arrived on the scene of the world in the 19th century, just when people thought they knew everything in science. With its discovery in 1896, radioactivity opened a box of many questions and revealed a new world, waiting to be explored in the microcosm of the atomic nucleus. Radioactivity also helped in answering the questions which were not yet known. This helped science in many fields. WHAT MAKES AN ELEMENT RADIOACTIVE? There are three kinds of particles inside an atom: that is protons, neutrons and electrons. The nucleus contains the above mentioned two particles i.e. protons and neutrons. The region beyond the nucleus contains electrons that balance out the charge of the protons. The number of protons is equal to the number of neutrons that is why the atomic weight is twice the atomic number. Since like charges repel each other which results a force that tries to push the electrons and protons apart. If the ratio of protons to the neutrons is not within certain limits then the proton can not be held firmly together which leads to the formation of an unstable nucleus. Making the isotopes of some elements radioactive. For example, carbon, the element found in all living things has a chemical symbol C. the normal form has an atomic weight of 12 and is written as carbon-12, but the radioactive version has two extra neutrons, so the symbol iscarbon-14. As we shall see, the radioactive form behaves chemically just like the non-radioactive form, although one shall never change into the other. There are three kinds of radioactivity each with different radiation type. RADIOACTIVITY Radioactivity is a very interesting phenomenon in nature. Classical Electromagnetism cannot explain radioactivity. Its a spontaneous and random phenomenon whereby nuclei of certain chemical elements like Uranium, radiate gamma rays, beta particles and alpha particles. By the emission of these particles and radiation, the unstable nucleus gets converted into a stable nucleus. This is called RADIOACTIVE DECAY. Radioactivity was accidentally discovered by HENRI BECQUEREL. Scientists like Madam Curie and her husband Pierre also worked hard to isolate other radioactive elements such as Polonium and Radium. Knowledge of radioactivity helped scientists to work out the structures of atoms. USES OF RADIOACTIVITY We could not do without radioactive materials in todays world, even if we wanted to. We rely on these radioactive elements every day to make us healthier, to help supply necessities like food and electricity, keep us safer, help us to protect our environment, add fun and convenience to our lives and help us learn more about our world. Radioisotopes have found a large number of applications. Some of them are as follows: Medical Diagnosis Generate Electricity Synthesis of new elements Preservation of food Smoke detectors and many more RADIOACTIVITY IN MEDICINE Ionizing radiations has many beneficial uses as they can be used for the diagnosis and for the curing of many diseases. Since infected cells can be killed by these radiations. Hence they are widely used in caner treatments. Radioactive isotopes are commonly used in medicine, which help the physicians to know more about the body structures. For the treatment of cancers radioisotopes are commonly used which require destruction of harmful cells causing these type of diseases. Although nuclear medicine started its clinical origin in the 1930 decade, the invention of gamma scintillation camera by an American engineer Hal Anger in the mid of 1950s, though, this invention brought an important turn back in medicine imaging Radioactive isotopes also allow excellent quality imaging of bones, heart, liver and many parts of our body. Gamma ray emitted tracers are used in large number of diagnostic procedures in nuclear medicine. These traces are formed due to the bonding of radioisotopes having short life period with chemical compounds that allow the targeting of a particular body regions or physiologic processes. Emitted gamma rays can be detected by gamma cameras and computer enhancement of the resulting images allows quick and relatively non-invasive assessments of trauma or physiological impairments. CANCER which is a process of rapid growth of cells gets damaged by radio isotopic radiations. Somehow, some cancerous growth of cells can be eliminated or restricted by the use of radioisotope radiations. The most common forms of external radiations therapy is use of the gamma radiations and X-rays. During the last half of the twentieth century the radioisotope Cobalt-60 was most commonly used source of radiation used in such treatments. Today thousands of hospitals all over the world use radioisotopes in medicine, and about 90% of the procedures are used for diagnosis. Technetium-99 is the most common isotope used in diagnosis, with some 30 million procedures in a year, accounting for 80% of all nuclear medicine procedures all over the world. ISOTOPS COMMONLY USED IN MEDICINE: There are about 20 radioactive isotopes used in medicine. Each isotope has its own use in this field. Some of them are: Chromium-51, cobalt 60, Erbium 169, Iodine-125, Iridium-192, Sodium-24, Xenon-133, Selenium-75, Strontium-89, Phosphorus-32 etc. Here is a list of isotopes with there half life period and uses: Chromium-51: Half life period 28 days Purpose: Used to label red blood cells and quantify gastro- intestinal protein loss. Cobalt-60: Half life period is 10.5 months Purpose: Formerly used for external beam radiotherapy. Erbium-169 Half life period is 9.4 days Purpose: Use for relieving arthritis pain in synovial joints. Iodine-125 Half life period is 60 days Purpose: Used in cancer Brach therapy (prostate and brain), also diagnostically to evaluate the filtration rate of kidneys and to diagnose deep vein thrombosis in the leg. It is also widely used in radioimmunology- assays to show the presence of hormones in tiny quantities. Iodine-131 Half life period is 8 days Purpose: Widely used in treating thyroid cancer and in imaging the thyroid; also in diagnosis of abnormal liver function, renal (kidney) blood flow and urinary tract obstruction. A strong gamma emitter, but used for beta therapy. Iodine used for curing thyroid cancer Iridium-192 half life period is 74 days Purpose: Supplied in wire form for use as an internal radiotherapy source for cancer treatment (used then removed). Sodium-24 Half life period is 15 hours Purpose: For studies of electrolytes within the body. Xenon-133 Half life period is 5 days Purpose: Used for pulmonary (lung) ventilation studies. Phosphorus-32 Half life period is14 days Purpose: Used in the treatment of polycythemia Vera (excess red blood cells). Beta emitter. X-Rays are used to examine the internal parts of the body that is bones to see the fractures. Applications of X-Rays: Radiography: Radiography is used to diagnose the ailment and diseases of the internal and hidden parts of the body using x-rays. Fluoroscopy: Fluoroscopy is a type of medical imaging that shows a continuous x-ray image on a monitor. Digital Subtraction Angiography: Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) is used to image blood vessels. Computerized Axial Tomography: A computerized axial tomography scan is an x-ray procedure that combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the body. Mammography: Mammography is a special type of x-ray that is used for the detailed images of breast. Radiation Therapy: Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy), high-energy rays are used to damage cancer cells and stop them from growing and dividing. A specialist in radiation therapy is called a radiation oncologist. Uses of Radioactive Materials in Medical Research Used in Biomedical researches: The Radioactive isotopic materials are very essential in curing many dreadful diseases like AIDS, cancer and Alzheimers disease. In Pharmaceutical drug testing: The U.N. Food and Drug Administration require all new pharmaceutical drugs to be tested for safety and effectiveness. More than about 80 percent of those drugs are tested with radioactive materials. One of the most important tests is to determine if the pharmaceutical is going to the other parts of the body than the desired or intended target and what effect it can cause to the parts where it is not needed. By adding a radioactive tag to the pharmaceutical, researchers can pinpoint all the parts of the body and the concentration that accumulates non-targeted areas. From this they can determine if there is likelihood of adverse reactions in other parts of the body. Metabolic Research: Radionuclide is used extensively in metabolic studies and genetic engineering. Chemical Reaction Imaging: the latest single photon emission typography (SPET) on positron emission tomography (PET) enable scientists to watch colour images of chemical reactions in living tissue and, in particular, to trace opioid molecules- naturally occurring morphine-type drugs which eliminate pain within the brain. Side Effects of Radiation The form of the energies that are released from these elements in radiation therapy is often administered by machine. The machine aims those radiations at the cancer. Radioactive substances can also be kept inside the body of a person. These types of treatments can cause many side effects. These side effects may include: hair loss nausea vomiting swelling difficulty swallowing urinary and bladder changes The side effects caused due to the treatment of the patient can last long for a certain period of time. It may be a period of two months, six months or even a year. So the patient has to bear some pains after or during the curing of fatal diseases like cancer using radiation therapy. Radioactive Waste Disposal: An Environmental Perspective Any activities that produce or use radioactive materials generate radioactive wastes. Various processes in medicine, scientific result and in all other fields produce bi products that include radioactive wastes. Radioactive waste can be in gas, liquid or solid form, and its level of radioactivity can vary. The waste can remain radioactive for a few hours or several months or even hundred or thousands of years. Because it can be hazardous and can remain radioactive for so long, finding suitable disposal facilities for radioactive wastes is very difficult. Depending on the type of waste disposed, the disposal facility may need to contain radiations for a very long time. Proper disposal is essential to ensure protection of the health and safety of the public and quality of the air, soil and water supplies. Radioactivity waste disposal practices have changed substantially over the last twenty years. Evolving environmental protection considerations have provided the impetus to improve disposal technologies, and, in some cases, clean up facilities that are no longer in use. Designs for new disposal facilities and disposal methods must meet environmental protection and pollution prevention standards that are stricter than were foreseen at the beginning of the atomic age. CONCLUSION One hundred years ago, a group of scientists unknowingly ushered in the atomic age. Driven by curiosity, these men and women explored the nature and also the functioning of atom. Their work initiated the paths of research which changed our understanding of the building blocks of matter. There discoveries prepared the way for development of new methods and tools used to explore our origins, the functioning of our bodies both in sickness and health, and much more. How did our conceptions of atomic properties change? How has that change affected our lives and our knowledge of world? Radiation is a two edged sword: its usefulness in both medicine and anthropological and archaeological studies is undisputed, yet the same materials can be used for destruction. Human curiosity drove inquiring scientists to harness the power of an atom. Now humankind must accept the responsibility for the appropriate and beneficial uses of this very powerful tool.

Economic Networkingâ€Exploring Alternatives for Promoting Sustainable De

Economic Networking—Exploring Alternatives for Promoting Sustainable Development in Africa INTRODUCTION The history of European aid intervention in the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) states has traditionally acted to reinforce the hierarchical distinction between the â€Å"developed† and the â€Å"developing† world. The series of Lome Conventions which granted preferential trade agreements between these groups of countries have proved ineffective in encouraging economic sustainability in the ACP states, and although the ACP includes most of the Least Developed Countries (LLDCs) in the world, the agreements have been criticized as being unfair in the global context. Under pressure to negotiate a new ACP-EU agreement that would be consistent with World Trade Organization (WTO) regulations, and improve on the limitations of the previous Lome Conventions, the Cotonou Convention was signed in 2000, after arduous negotiations. Despite this agreement, the future of ACP-EU relations is somewhat vague. Particularly with respect to Africa, this uncertainty leaves room for eva luation of the effectiveness of the past agreements and an objective analysis of the motives behind previous economic ties. Furthermore, by analyzing the problematic history of European aid to Africa, there emerges a basis for shifting away from the neo-colonialist relationships that characterized most of the past agreements, and exploring the benefits of creating alternative partnerships. Ultimately, the possibility of forming partnerships amongst individual ACP countries and between other developing countries is an overlooked idea that should be further explored. A Historical Perspective African economic development is a subject of wide interest. Amongst the ... ...2 October 2003 Kwarteng, Charles O. Africa and the European Challenge. Vermont: Ashgate Publishing Company. 1997. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development. October 2001. Overseas Development Institute. Reshaping European partnerships: what future for the ACP? Meeting September 2003. http://www.odi.org.uk/speeches/edc_2010/meeting_report_17september.html The World Bank Group. World Development Indicators Database: Country Profile Table. 11 March 2004 . The World Bank Group. 2003 World Development Indicators. 11 March 2004. . Economic Community of West African States. About ECOWAS. 11 March 2004. .

Health and social care management Essay

INTRODUCTION This essay the author will be able to evaluate current systems for managing finances Resources in health and social care settings. Therefore will evaluate how financial Decisions are made and the need to monitor budgets. This will then enable the author to Evaluate the impact of financial considerations on an individual using health and Social care services. Furthermore will provide a core understanding of the range of systems available, and How these are used in the planning and financial management of health and social Care budgets. The unit further will encourage understanding the importance of Monitoring budget expenditure and its influence on the provision of health and social Care services. LO.1 1.1PRINCIPLE OF COSTING AND BUSINES CONTROL SYTEMS Analysis of current situation against budget and forecast, classification and coding, job costing, Contract costing, actual cost ascertainment,allocation/apportionment COSTING DEFINITION: Costing it describe as According official terminology the technique and procedure of ascertaining cost. These valuation systems including main beliefs and system to determine the cost of goods or services. It also the  quantity of supply used in replacement of goods or services. The income used can be financed or money’s value, Semi Variable Semi Fixed Cost Cost: Cost is an amount that has to be paid or given up in order to get something Cost Unit: The unit cost is the cost incurred by a company to produce, store and sell one unit of a particular product. Unit costs include all fixed costs and all variable costs A cost center is part of an organization that does not produce direct profit and adds to the cost of Running a company. Examples of cost centers include Cost object: Cost object is often a product or department for which cost is accumulated or measured. For example, a product is the cost object for direct materials, direct labor and manufacturing overhead also the factory maintenance department is cost object for the cost of the maintenance employees and the maintenance supplies. Cost benefit analysis: Is A cost object is a tangible input for a product manufactured/service provided, like labor or material. For example a cloth manufacturing firm requires some Break even analysis: Classification of cost means, the grouping of costs according to their common characteristics. The important Cost behavior The way a specific cost reacts to changes in activity levels is called cost behavior. Costs may stay the same or may change proportionately Variable Cost / Product Cost: Variable costs are the Fixed and Variable cost A cost is fixed if, within a specified period of time, it does not change in response to changes in the level of activity. A variable cost is one that changes in response to changes in the level of activity, it changes in direct proportion to the volume of activity, that is, doubling the level of activity will double the total variable cost total cost over a period of time for the variable inputs. Any increase in the volume of production results in an increase in the variable cost and vice versa. For example, of variable costs is the cost of raw material. Semi-Variable Cost / Semi-Fixed cost: These costs are in part fixed and in part variable. For example: repair machine fees. Semi-variable cost includes both a fixed and a variable element. For example, a telephone bill contains a fixed standing charge and  a variable charge based on the number of units dialled. A semi-fixed cost or stepped cost is one where the cost remains constant for a range of activity; then when the activity increases still further the cost will take a step upward. Break-even Analysis is an expected component of most business plans, especially for start-up companies. It shows how much revenue you need to cover for both fixed and variable costs and cost benefit analysis are frequently used by health and social care organisation to monitor cost and make decision about expenditures. Cost data are very useful in budget preparation and forecasting for the financial year, the Providers use cost data to manage services and improve operational efficiency. Cost data are also used to support the development of pricing and currency design for reimbursement purposes A direct cost is especially noticeable to a set cost object. A cost object is a product, procedure, section, or action for which the health administration requirements to assess the cost, such as a medical test, a care appointment, or a health check process. Indirect costs cannot be traced to an agreed cost purpose not including resorting to some arbitrary method of assignment. Hand, is directly involved in producing revenues, and, if it is managed well, its revenues exceed its cost and it produces a profit. The six principles of costing are: Stakeholder engagement: Stakeholder engagement is the process by which an organisation involves people who may be affected by the decision it makes or can influence the implementation of its decision Materiality : is in accounting relates to the significance of transaction, balances and errors contained in financial statements. . Consistency For some costing purposes, a consistent approach is required across or within organizations. Data accuracy, Accurate costing relies on the quality of the underlying input data. Transparency Costing should be transparent and auditable Causality and objectivity Importance of costing: Costing help an organisation to manage is company to incur a cost with the  expectation of profit Example: A company may have a variety of distinct departments,division,or operating groups,each with separate responsibilities and each contributing to the overall success of the company.cost centers,for example,such as accounting,auditing,or inventory control,have costs,but does not contribute revenues. As a result, they do not produce profits. 1.2 The information needed to manage financial resources Is to understand the role of planning in the management of health and social care budgets also the importance of monitoring budget expenditure. Such as transparent and Accurate accounting Information, risk management, short and long term Forecasts, audit report. Information 1 Need is business costs, people, equipment, finance, buildings, consumable items, administration; Income streams; trends and external influences, e.g. changes in policy, competitive factors, legal requirements. 1.3Regulatory requirements Legislation and codes of practice, audit, accountability, policies. Systems: sources of income, how budgets are set, administration of budgets, cost centers, accountabilities, Audit requirements Information: business costs: people, equipment, finance, buildings, consumable items, administration; Income streams: trends and external influences:changes in policy, competitive factors, legal requirements. 1.4 System for managing finance Is a plan, assuring that resources are obtained and used effectively, efficiently in the accomplishment of the organization’s goals. Therefore, it focuses on programs and responsibility center and it is a total encompasses of all aspects of a firm’s operation and usually built around a financial and accounting structure need two types of information for management control planned date such as, budgets, standards, and projections) and  actual data. Budgetary control system Cost control system Financial control system Internal control and audit Enterprise resource management system IT control systems Importance of business control system LO2: ROLE OF PLANNING IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CARE TECH BUDGET Care tech annual report Financial Review The Group has repeated the good progress of recent years in 2013 The UK market Group has continued to be progressive and has made encouraging progress during the year. The underlying operating profit remains strong at  £23.2m compared with  £21.7m last year. Transaction on 28 August 2013 to acquire two property portfolio businesses, leading to an annual rent saving Of  £4.4m. Income Statement 2013 2012  £m  £m Growth Revenue 114.3 114.1 0.2% Gross profit 45.6 45.3 Administrative expenses (19.2) (20.4) Underlying EBITDA 26.4 24.9 6.0% Underlying EBITDA margin 23.1%, 21.8% Depreciation (3.1) (3.1) Share-based payment charge (0.1) (0.1) Underlying operating profit 23.2 21.7 6.9% Net financial expenses (5.7) (5.0) Underlying profit before tax 17.5 16.7 Taxation (3.4) (3.4) Effective tax rate 20.0%, 20.0% Underlying profit for the year 14.1 13.3 Weighted average number of diluted shares (millions) 51.3 50.4 Underlying diluted earnings per share 27.43 26.47 Full year dividend per share 7.00p 6.50p Revenue Revenue of  £114.3m (2012:  £114.1m) was 0.2% higher than in 2012. In the established Adult Learning Disabilities segment we continued to experience high levels of occupancy 2.1 Diverse sources of income 2.2 Factors that may influence the availability of financial resources 2.3 Types of budget expenditure 2.4 Decisions about expenditure TASK 3: IMPORTANCE OF MONITORING BUDGET EXPENDITURE IN CARE TECH 3.1 Managing financial shortfalls 3.2 Financial fraud actions 3.3 Budget monitoring arrangements LO.4: INFLUENCE OF SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES ON CARE TECH SERVICES 4.1 Information required in making financial decisions: Different types of information are needed by decision makers depending upon the stage of operation they are in. The decision involved can be Quantitative or qualitative. Judgments regarding movements in future share prices, likely future dividend payments and management efficiency. Ratios to determine management efficiency. Data to compare the market trend and future estimates. 4.2 Relationship between care service delivered and ‘costs and expenditure’ 4.3 Impact of financial considerations on a service user 4.4 Improving care services through changes in financial systems and processes Bottom of Form . Of fraud. 4 Understand how systems and processes for managing financial resources influence health and social Care services Financial decisions: responsibility for decision making, information available, sources of income, priorities The relationship between service delivery, costs and expenditure: cost-benefit, pricing policies, purchasing Arrangements. Impact on individuals: quality of service, access to service. Recommendations: options available, supporting evidence, information to be presented for discussion by financial decision makers. : Information about the business environment and external influences Good understanding Of the business cost by health care managers will aid the management of financial resources in health care organisation. The information includes Staff cost (Wages and salaries, Pension cost) Medical equipment and appliances cost (Hoist, Buckets, Buckets, Stretcher, Trolley, Wheelchair) Cost (Outright purchase or lease – Operating or finance lease Cost of consumable items (Food, toiletries, Soap, Kerosene, lantern Administrative cost and Professional fees The revenue (income) receives depend on the service and business engagement of the health organisation which includes normal business activities such as (Adult Learning Disabilities, Mental Health, Young People Residential Services, Foster Care rents and service charges from social housing lettings and leasehold management revenue grant, tax support contribution. The Regulatory body They are alot of regulatory required for satisfying while managing financial resources, but in this essay the author will mention a few such as, Care tech holding PLC in 2013 financial ending. Care Quality Commission,  Healthcare Sector Regulator Monitor, NHS Commissioning Board, 1. Important to monitor to avoid fraud and eoror What is Importance of costing in HSC 1.2Intoduce by defining business control systems Identify and explain the different business controls systems in BULLETS (Budgetary control system, Cost control system, Financial control system, Internal control and audit, Enterprise resource management system, IT control systems) Conclude with the importance of business control systems.

The Steps Of Fitness Improvement - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 1 Words: 400 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/05/15 Category Sports Essay Level High school Tags: Fitness Essay Did you like this example? Goal settings for fitness improvement including steps and obstacles one might face Fore someone how is starting out to exercise they should find some physical activities they enjoy to do. It doesnt have to de squats, running, lungus, or weight lifting. It could be anything they enjoy to do that involve physical activity. This way it will be easiest to get in the habit of doing it daky. Some examples may be swimming, soccer, or anything they want. They should start slow then over time build it up. They could start with walking a mile every day and keep pushing themselves over time to increase their physical fitness. They should stretch first so it will lower the risks of any injury. Find a partner to work out with you so you could encourage each other to keep going or if you find it better to it by yourself then do it by yourself. If you feel like someone else will slow you down then dont. Do whatever you like to do. At first it may be difficult to not give up and fall i nto your old habits but keep trying dont give up eventually it will come part of your day to day life. When working out dont forget to bring some water to keep yourself hydrated and dont over work yourself. First of all find out what kind of exceersus you want to do and stick to it keep adding to it until you reach your goal. At first you may find it hard and difficult but over time it will get easy. Start to eat healthy food and make better food choices. It will help you out in your journey to becoming fit. If you find yourself quitting then slow down and keep going do your best you can just dont quit. In the long run it will be good for your health. You will feel great and happy and have a higher self esteem. You may start to feel lazy and tired so you could take a day without exercising. But the next day get back on your feet and continue with your work out you may even going to like it and enjoy it. Dont forget to keep yourself hydrated because you will swat and loss fluorid es. It is a great idea to have a bottle of water near dy so you wont get water deprived Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Steps Of Fitness Improvement" essay for you Create order